1. CHINESE MIGRATION TO PERU

Thousands of Chinese left their country in the mid 1800s because of famine and proverty. They arrive in Cuba, Panama, Mexico and Brazil, but the largest number settled in Peru (Lima and other coastal cities) and in the United States (mainly in San Francisco, CA) Due to continuous migration. Chinese cooking expanded widely in these countries which is why Lima and San Francisco are known worldwide as cities where excellent and authentic Chinese cooking is available.

The characteristics of Chinese cooking, based on philosophy, medicinal properties, history and diversity, helped Chinese migrants jealously guard their gastronomic tradition, despite mistreatment, isolation and adversity in foreign lands.

In 1869, a journalist from the Peruvian newspaper, El Nacional, described the conditions of the Oriental Empire’s children in San Francisco. “They arrive in San Francisco in geometric progression, searching for gold Their situation in the fields is better than in Peru but they are equally mistreated, and their braids cut of”. Regarding food, he said.: “You see Asians wearing a hat that looks more like an umbrella, carrying a yoke on their shoulders and balancing sacks with rice, pork ribs and several mining tools with an amazing sense of balance... They keep all their national idiosyncrasies, dress, culinary tradition and religion, and will never ever look like Americans, not even a bit… they have not adapted to American food, with rice being ther sole meal, They eat a piece of pork only occasionally They eat turkey, chiken, duck and other fowl only on special occasions. They do not care if they eat rats, mice and their enemy, the cat” (El nacional, April 10, 1869). This description, with ist own obvious peculiarities, could also be applied to the immigrants who arrive in Peru.

This is not meant to be a study on Chinese migration to Peru; Peruvian writers have already undertaken that. Essential details will be presented to ofter the context in which Chinese cooking. Known locally as chifa, developed.

About 75 Chinese immigrants (coolies) arrived in Peru in October 1849 to make up for the workforce shortage on coastal sugar and cotton plantations. Pressure from landlords to “import” farmhands led the Peruvian Congress to pass the “Chinese Law” in November of that year. The law allowed Asians migration to Peru to satisfy the landlords demand for workers. There were no longer many blacks working on farms, and the normal abolition of slavery in 1854 increased demand for workers in the fields and other sectors.

Demand for Chinese workers continued to increase. According to historian Watt Stewart ([1951] 1976), some 90,000 coolies arrived in Peru between 1849 and 1874 Chinese immigrants not only worked in farming, but also on railroad construction, guano extraction and domestic service. The coolies were farmers with scarce economic resources. The majority came from canton province and worked in slave like conditions. Work contracts lasted for eight years during which time the coolies were under the total control of their masters. If a coolie was ill, he had to pay his master with additional work, thus extending contacts longer than the original agreement. Mistreatment and injustice only served to reinforce their traditional habits, specially cooking.

Beginning in 1874, with the signing of the Peace, Navigation and Friendship Treaty between Peru and China, was signed traffic in coolies stopped. The Chinese who came afterwards lived in better conditions. Professor Dora Mayer (1924) said, “there was an immigration of more suitable individuals… They were better educated, they were businessmen and respectful graduates” (Mayer, 1924). While Mayer idealises reality, the profile of Chinese immigrants did change. Many of those finished their contracts opened their own groceries, shoes shops, launderettes taverns, coffee shops and general stores. Wilma Derpich (1987) says that a Chinese tavern is the early version of today’s chifa.

Chinese migrants who came after 1874 arrived at the home of a friend or relative and got a job in their small business. Those who continued working on farms did so to save money and eventually moved to Lima or other coastal cities. Mayer says, “early in the 20th century, the image of the old Chinese prototype had completely disappeared… Elegant Chinese businesses, farming and industrial enterprises, including a shopping company and newspaper, were established… the Chinses had demonstrated that they were suitable for trade. A Chinese traders spoils his customers. “The Chinese created the “yapa”. (A freed gift with purchases) so shopping was more economical at their stores.

Regarding Chinese taverns, she adds: “Chinese groceries, shoe shops, launderettes and taverns, known in modern times as restaurants, are everywhere… It cannot be denied that they adapted amazingly to social needs. Another Asian invention is selling boiled water for breakfast every morning so families don’t have to do it”.

Juan de Arona ([1891] 1972), a poet and academic, refers to the Chinese immigration, saying: “We now have the longest, most enduring, perfect and unique immigration in Peru… We are referring to the importation of Chinese or coolies”. He recognizes, though. That they were isolated (racism was strong until about 1920). “We do not see them… as a civilising factor…nor do they improve the local race; but we know they solved the workforce shortage, added to domestic service, were a floating workforce in the valleys and farms of the coast, (and) spread their industrial inspirations to the darkest places in the mountains and even in the jungle. They were responsible for the farming boom that the country enjoyed for several years, and for small and new industries that make things inexpensively. Due to the cheap price of their goods, our ordinary people learned the habit of using tablecloths, glasses and cutlery when eating”. He ends with this verse:

You see Chinese everywhere

Extracting guano

Cultivating the valleys

Giving someone a hand,

Sweeping.

They even serve ordinary people

There is no service, did you hear?

Don’t try to improve

And the country’s common folk?

Learning to behave as real people!

According to historian Watt Stewart ([1951] 1976), some 90,000 coolies arrived in Peru between 149 and 1874, with the largest number arriving between 1860 and 1874. Chinese immigrants not only worked in farming but also on railroad construction, guano extraction and domestic service. The resources, the majority came from canton.